The practice developed from the history of contact between indigenous Fijians and colonial settlers. Colonial Methodist missionaries introduced Christianity to the Fijians and influenced Fijian belief in ancestral spirits to be seen as demons, which only the Christian God can control.
Similar to what we have seen in looking at the history of Hawaii, there was a struggle for control between island chiefs and missionaries. The Methodist missionaries ultimately gained control over the nation, and as a result of that transfer of power, present day Fijians believe that they are not as strong, or as powerful, as their ancestors were. Due to this belief, Fijians have given considerable power to the idea that ancestors can become angry and curse them, and only God has the power to assist them. The power of God is then invoked through the use of Methodist ministers and the ritual of chain prayers.
The prayer chain functions as follows: "some participants pray - individually or in teams, at one or more prayer sites - while other participants rest at another site or sites. In this revolving pattern of prayer-and-rest, prayergivers repeatedly replacing each other, the form of a patchwork or a linked chain is suggested" (Tomlinson 8).
The author gives details of two case studies of these rituals that he was able to observe while in Fiji conducting field work. In his observations, he noted the importance of language use both in performing the rituals, but also in perpetuating the need for them. The demons or ancestral spirits are usually referred to in general terms, but at one point in the ritual the minister begins to refer to the spirits as "you." By using this term, the minister is able to indicate a specific cause of the problem, but it was never made clear who "you" was. The author claims that the use of this ambiguous language helps to preserve the need for future chain prayers by keeping the threat of an unspecified "you" alive and therefore able to strike again.
The article suggests that not only had indigenous Fijians lost control of their physical world, but of their spiritual world as well. By this loss of control, there is much anxiety at times of transition in the lives of Fijians that they then attribute to angry ancestors and curses. The manifestations of these curses can include "sickness, poverty, lack of education, difficulty getting married or having children, and general failure to prosper" (8). By attributing the sources of these problems to the spiritual world, Fijians are kept in a powerless situation by not evaluating the actual sources of their suffering and misfortune.
Tomlinson, Matt. "Ritual, Risk, and Danger: Chain Prayers in Fiji." American Anthropologist 106.1 (2004): 6-16.
If you would like to learn more about Matt Tomlinson, the author of the article:
You can check out his newly released book that expands on these topics:
http://www.amazon.com/Gods-Image-Metaculture-Christianity-Anthropology/dp/0520257782/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1237170093&sr=1-1
6 comments:
Thanks for the great summary of the article, Lisa! I found this a very fascinating read- language use intersecting with religious beliefs and even political control.
In some respects it amazes me that Methodist missionaries were able to use language to link ancestral Fijian spirits with the Christian ideas of devils and demonic possession. It seems like a very successful example of cultural colonialism, to actually accomplish making indigenous Fijians view their own history and ancestral peoples as being the power behind curses and to even create the feeling of some ambiguous but malign force that is only prevented through Christianity and chain-prayers from harming the living...
Another thing I would compare this to is the type of political manipulation which makes use of news propaganda and the perpetually shifting of public discourse to constantly discover new "threats" and new "enemies" that of course require the status quo and the reigning political power to remain undisturbed and unreplaced.
I thought your summary was pretty interesting. I also agree with Elise that it's quite interesting how the missionaries linked the Fijian spirts with the Christian demons. I also found this aritcle to be interesting because it reminds me a lot of the Hawaiian aumakua. An aumakua is an ancester who turns in to an animal. Hawaiians believe that by taking care of this animal that in turn there ancestor will protect them. I think that this could show how in the Pacific cultures seem to be very family oriented. It looks like family is an important part not just in the present but even when family members pass away.
Very nice summary! Another interesting part of the article that neither of us really mentioned was the way in which the Reverend constructed one of his prayers. Not only was he praying to God, but in the middle of the prayer he was casting the demon away and then continued praying to God. For a prayer, that seems quite strange, but I wonder if that is done purposely for some reason.
It is interesting how language via chain prayers (masu sema) can be used to dismantle and negate indigenous ancestors and also legitimize western Christianity. The transforming affects of colonialism and Christianity are characterized by their domination; Christianity - being monotheistic - can only flourish without the presence of other multiple gods or animistic spirits. In reading the story of the 15 year old girl (Viena) and getting rid of the demons that posses her ; it seems similar to exorcism done in the Catholic church. These chain prayers are closely linked with language due to that they are “communicative performances”. The language used in the chain prayers follows kinship terms by calling them “others” or “someones” rather than giving them distinct first names and also providing them ambiguity. It is also interesting that it requires often multiple people: series of multiple people or there is minister and a small audience that repeats back or helps in the chain prayer. Another interesting aspect of this is that chain prayers are legitimizing biblical language (proverbs and readings from bible are often used) and gives power to Christian belief. What’s interesting is that even though the ancestral sprits or demons are referred to ambiguously they become more powerful to the Fijian people during these chain prayers: “chain prayers are sites where powers – and elusiveness – of spirits are made into compelling realities.” (12)
I like how Tomlinson thinks to look at how Christianity came to create this social force when he says, “The enemy was ultimately Christianity itself, in its role as historical force which has gained authority over and against chiefs by literally demonizing the past.” The idea that these ancestral spirits possessed power has remained the same – but that they are now negatively looked upon was changed by Methodist missionaries. What was once ancestral worship has now become ancestral malice. Christianity in this case has used language as a tool to perpetuate western religious ideologies.
Great summary, well explained! Ancestral Fijian spirits and the christian belief of devils and demonic possession are somehow linked through a spiritual language. Through casting out of undesired spirits and calling upon the Christian deity to expose the Fijian spirit. Fijian ritual seems to be linked with black magic and voodoo. Wishing death or malice for ones life is creepy. Medodist missionaries successfully marked a cultural and spiritual colonialism domination of ones reality. Christianity in this case has used language as a tool to perpetuate western religious theology. What I find extremely interesting is, “chain prayers are sites where powers – and elusiveness – of spirits are made into compelling realities.” In Christianity when two or more are gathered in his holy name, the spirit is ever present. Is spiritual Holiness a type of political tool?
Thank you for the nice summary of the article. What I found very interesting is that the indigenous people consider themselves powerless, and therefore they want to believe the existence of all mighty God to defuse senses of hazards and risks.
Another interesting thing is the huge effect of Christianity on tradition. Christianity was not a replacement of the belief in ancestral spirits, but rather they revalued them as demonic. In this way, people have more reasons to believe in God to be protected from curses and dangers.
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